The, Genetic And Epigenetic Mutations - 1064 Words

Cancer, one of the most common diseases in the world, is a result of genetic and epigenetic mutations. Where genetics was at first used to explain phenotypes and disease, genetics alone could not explain the sheer amount of phenotypic diversity in a population—nor could it explain phenomenon such as how, â€Å"monozygotic twins or cloned animals [could] have different phenotypes and different susceptibilities to a disease.† Thus entered the field of epigenetics. Epigenetics is, â€Å"the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur independent of changes in the primary DNA sequence.† Therefore, epigenetics has its own, independent mechanisms to affect the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals. Although technically independent of one another, like genetics, epigenetics can be greatly influenced and altered by external factors such as ones environment. For example, one study looked at the importance of nutrition in early life and its effects on the epigenome. Using families involved in the Dutch Hunger Winter and the Great Leap Forward in China, the study found that children exposed to famine in utero had DNA methylation changes in genes associated with birth weight and low-density lipoprotein. When followed up, years later, with a study of nutritional deprivation in mice, data showed that epigenetic changes not only affected the babies in utero, but also affected the next generation of mice. A Brief History of Epigenetics In 1930, Hermann J. Muller did one of theShow MoreRelatedBackground Explanation Of Epigenetics By Conrad Waddington883 Words   |  4 PagesMorimoto, 2004). Background Explanation of Epigenetics Epigenetics What is epigenetics? Epigenetics is a term that was coined by Conrad Waddington that describes the heritable changes in the cellular phenotypes that are observed independently of alterations that occurs in the DNA sequence (Dawson Kouzarides, 2012). He proposed that there was a link between development and genetics, which is where the field of epigenetics came from. The word epigenetics itself was derived from a Greek word epigenesistRead MoreEvolution Of A Scientific Revolution978 Words   |  4 Pages This kind of paradigm shift has occurred numerous times in history and many speculate it will happen again as more scientists research epigenetics. This theory takes root in the idea that change in gene expression (not the gene itself) can be triggered by external forces (i.e. environment), and said change can be inherited. Although many argue that epigenetics will cause a scientific revolution as the antithesis to Darwinian evolution, people are not taking into account that it can be integratedRead MoreEpigenetics And Autistic Spectrum Disorder1078 Words   |  5 Pages Epigenetics and Autistic Spectrum Disorder Jowan Jones Old Dominion University â€Æ' Abstract This paper plans to focus on autism spectrum disorder and how epigenetics contributes to the development of the disease. ASD is comorbid with other neurodevelopmental diseases including Rett Syndrome, Fragile X, Prader-Willi, and Angelman. These diseases have frequent, identifiable symptoms such as coloboma of the eye, heart defects, atresia of the nasal choanae, retardation of growth and or developmentRead MoreGenetic Markers Don t Always Match Physical Appearance1638 Words   |  7 PagesGenetic markers don’t always match physical appearance. First of all, a genetic marker is a gene or short sequence of DNA. Since the beginning of time our genetics have been changing constantly due to a lot of different aspects. Some causes of change include aging. As we get older our bodies chemicals change, we produce more and less of certain chemicals, for example; insulin. The changing of chemicals affect our body not just on the outside, but on the inside. It affects the way our gen etic markersRead MoreRoman Cohen. Mr. Dunham. Career Ed. 25 January 2017. The1652 Words   |  7 PagesRoman Cohen Mr. Dunham Career Ed 25 January 2017 The Effect of Genetic Markers Genetic markers don’t always match physical appearance. First of all, a genetic marker is a gene or short sequence of DNA. Since the beginning of time our genetics have been changing constantly due to a lot of different aspects. Some causes of change include aging. As we get older our bodies chemicals change, we produce more and less of certain chemicals, for example; insulin. The changing of chemicals affect ourRead MoreGenetic And Epigenetic Influences On Autism Spectrum Disorders : A Role For The Methyl1619 Words   |  7 PagesGenetic and epigenetic influences in autism spectrum disorders: A role for the methyl CpG-binding protein in Rett syndrome. The genetics of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) rarely display a Mendelian mode of inheritance, and can result from a single rare gene mutation, more common variations in single nucleotide polymorphisms, or often a combination of these two factors in conjunction with environmental influences [1]. In contrast, epigenetic mechanisms are heritable changes in gene expressionRead MoreThe Realm Of Hungry Ghosts Essay1284 Words   |  6 Pagesown society. Until recent developments in scientific research, human genetics have long-been the culprit behind substance abuse. This cause has led to a popular belief in addiction predetermination: â€Å"The ordaining of events beforehand† (Merriam-Webster). In other words, the notion places an assumed fate of human behavior based on biological make-up. While genetics undoubtedly play a tremendous role in who we are, epigenetics play an even greater part in the science of human behavior. As the prefixRead MoreBiochemical Approaches On The Import Of Genetics Essay925 Words   |  4 PagesSociogenomics: Biochemical Approaches to Study the Import of Genetics in Social Behaviours Literature Review Sociogenomics is a relatively new research area that isn t very well understood. Scholarly articles (e.g., Roberts Jackson, 2008) describe it as a field that explores the following: the identification of genes that influence social behavior, the understanding of the influence of these genes on underlying neural and endocrine mechanisms, and understanding the effects of the environment,Read MoreBiology : A Biochemical Approach For Study How Genetics May Influence Social Outcomes Essay944 Words   |  4 PagesSociogenomics: A Biochemical Approach to Study how Genetics may Influence Social Outcomes Literature Review Sociogenomics is a relatively new research area that isn t very well understood. Scholarly articles (e.g., Roberts Jackson, 2008) describe it as a field that explores the following: the identification of genes that influence social behavior, the understanding of the influence of these genes on underlying neural and endocrine mechanisms, and understanding the effects of the environmentRead MoreThe Detection And Treatment Of Cancer1554 Words   |  7 PagesHow is a greater understanding of genetics fuelling a change in our diagnosis and treatment of cancer? It is estimated by Cancer Research UK that one in two people in the UK will get cancer at some point in their lives . This startling statistic shows an inept global failure to bring about control of one of most prevalent and fatal known diseases. But the growth in cancer incidence is not confined to the UK; in 2012 14.1 million new people were diagnosed worldwide, with forty percent of these new

Fracking Outline Essay - 707 Words

Natalia Nelson 6661318 Environmental Studies Section: Friday @ 2:00 with Jason Linn Fracking: The Invention of the Century or Destructive New Technology? Introduction: Possible quote – someone who supports the processs. Possible story: some analogy of something that was a good, necessary idea but just put off the inevitable and had a negative affect than fix it. Need for energy, how new ideas are necessary But is fracking really the best option? Public eye, people here about fracking a lot. But is it really a â€Å"QUOTE AGAIN†, or something completely different entirely? Thesis: Hydraulic fracturing is not â€Å"the energy solution to the future† (Johnson). Through an in depth look at the current energy crisis, a detailed study of†¦show more content†¦Natural gas (methane) or oil flows out of the cracks and up to surface 3. Hydrocarbons 4. Methane gas III. Environmental Effects: (Fry) b. Legal issues: vi. 2005- Congress passed bill exempting companies using fracking from laws under Environmental Protection Act vii. laws violated include: Clean Air Act, Clean Water, Safe Drinking Water Act viii. Why would fracking need to be exempt from these laws unless it was unsafe? c. Drinking water contamination ix. Six states in 2006 documented contaminated drinking water as direct result of fracking x. Water out of taps dirty xi. Unsafe to drink xii. Fire out of faucet-alit â€Å"Today’s methods make gas drilling a filthy business. You know it’s bad when nearby residents can light the water coming out of their tap on fire† ( Schweiger). d. Increase of small earthquakes xiii. Cite specific example e. Chemicals in fluid: (Stevens) xiv. Include methanol, tetramethyl ammonium chloride, potassium hydroide, ammonium, ethylene glycol, ammonium persulfate xv. Or, more commonly: methane gas, ammonia, arsenic, chloromethane, iron, manganese, t-butyl alcohol, toluene. (Bradford County) xvi. Discuss individual effects of these (or maybe in health section) xvii. Some companies use of chemicals are regulated while others areShow MoreRelatedFracking And Its Early Technological Advancements1564 Words   |  7 Pages â€Æ' Contents Introduction 1 What is Hydraulic Fracking? 2 The Roberts Torpedo, 1864 3 Kelpper Well No. 1, 1947 5 Hydrafrac, 1949 6 The Growth of Hydrafrac, 1949 - 1954 8 Introduction Hydraulic fracking (‘Fracking’) dominates the US oil and gas industry. Although it is currently a politically dividing topic due to environmental concerns (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2010), the concept behind fracking has been around for over 150 years (Roberts, 1866), and has beenRead MoreQuestion Questions On Political Culture1690 Words   |  7 Pagesgovernment cannot impose on the citizens such as limiting the freedom of speech and imposing a single religion as there is a constitution that stipulates the limits of the powers of the government. As in the case of the US, the constitution clearly outlines the government structure with the Bill of Rights providing a guarantee of specific liberties to citizens. Second to a limited government is the economic liberty which frees people to do their wish in the economic sphere without government interferenceRead MoreHydraulic Fracking : A Short Term Solution1361 Words   |  6 PagesHydraulic Fracking: A Short-Term Solution to a Long-Term Problem Development of infrastructure and market for natural gas, a product of hydraulic fracking, has blossomed in recent years. Interestingly though, hydraulic fracturing, a process that’s been around since the early 1900s, has recently become a topic of significant controversy, especially through the expansion of large reservoirs throughout the United States, including the Barnett Shale, the Marcellus, and the Bakken. However, the unsustainableRead MoreShould We Use Oil Everywhere? Essay1645 Words   |  7 Pagesreliance on oil exports places Saudi Arabia’s food and water security in a weakened position, particularly as the market for oil is subject to geopolitical disruptions and oil supplies are not infinite.† as stated by www.futuredirections.org.au. This outlines this issues that a region will have if they rely on oil especially soon. Furthermore, according to dirt.asla.org â€Å"the country needs to further diversify its economy away from the oil industry, whi ch offers relatively few jobs while concentratingRead MoreStaff Had The Opportunity For Review The Previous Version Of The Subject Proposed Article1415 Words   |  6 Pagesprevention, restoration, and mitigation. 2. Fracking fluid constituents and other additives or additive products used in the oil exploration and production process: Disclosure of fracking fluid constituents and other additives or additive products used in the oil exploration and production process (individual chemicals) is provided to assure that testing for these chemicals can occur in case of a release and to adequately address exposure by the fracking fluid constituents to human or environmentalRead MoreHydraulic Fracturing : A Common And Widespread Technique1637 Words   |  7 Pagesreservoirs. 2. Fracturing Fracturing can be defined in a different number of ways. 2.1. What is Fracturing? Hydraulic fracturing (also hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, fracking, or fraccing) is a well-stimulation technique in which rock is fractured by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of fracking fluid (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep-rock formationsRead MoreThe Effects Of Hydraulic Fracking On The United States Essay1934 Words   |  8 Pagesbenefits and costs of hydraulic fracking will be examined as well as negative and positive externalities. Both these implicated and explicit costs and benefits will be analyzed to determine if fracking should continue, i.e. are benefits greater than costs, and if so, should there be additional regulation, i.e. to maximize total economic and social profits. Through the use of this economic analysis, this paper aims to answer the following questions: Should hydraulic fracking continue in the United StatesRead MoreStakeholder Concerns : Corporate Management1619 Words   |  7 Pagesjob security is met. How Calfrac Uses Technology to Ensure Quality: Before a fracking operation, Calfrac runs simulations using programs that can determine the amount of fluid it must use, the type of fluid, the pressure that it must reach, and many other factors (Programming-Customized Stimulation Programs, 2015). Additionally, Calfrac provides a technical service team that measures the effectiveness of each fracking operation after it is complete. This allows the customer and the company to reflectRead MoreFracking Is Bad For Our Environment2549 Words   |  11 PagesHydraulic Fracking Research Paper and Why the process of Fracking is bad for our environment Abstract This paper explores the hydraulic fracturing process, exactly what it is, what the fracturing process does to the earth and the surrounding environment in addition, to the consequences. Hydraulic fracturing is fracturing of rock by pressurization. This process by which oil and natural gas can be forced from the earth. The hydraulic fracturing process takes millions of gallons of clean water, sandRead MoreDescribe the social implications of business ethics facing a selected business in its different areas of activity. (P3 and M2)2355 Words   |  10 Pagesthey have the rights to protect it from being stolen or misused by other people. What is fracking? Fracking is the process of drilling down into the earth before a high-pressure water mixture is directed at the rock to release the gas inside. Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure which allows the gas to flow out to the head of the well. Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is a technique designed to recover gas and oil from shale rock The process is carried out

Peste Brazil free essay sample

Brazils economy outranks all other South American countries, and it is expanding its presence in world markets. Since 2003, Brazil has steadily developed its macroeconomic stability, building up foreign reserves, and reducing its debt profile by shifting its debt burden towards real denominated and domestically held instruments. As the world’s largest economy and fifth largest country, Brazil is a regional economic power. It is because of its abundant agricultural, mineral, and energy resources that have led to the development of an extensive industrial base, diversified economy, and infrastructure. Lower inflation coupled with a strong currency regime, reduction in the government debt, and high commodity prices have all contributed to stable economic growth. Living standards have risen and a growing middle class has emerged leading to Brazil having moderately free markets and an inward-oriented economy. Today, Brazil is developing rapidly and it still produces and exports a great deal of coffee and sugar, as well as a vast amount of beef. We will write a custom essay sample on Peste Brazil or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It is also very rich in minerals such as gold and gemstones. Automotive manufacture is also an important industry in Brazil. Other industries include iron, chemicals, aerospace, textiles and cement. Music is important in Brazilian culture. Sports are also very popular in Brazil, the most prominent being football. Brazil is the host of the FIFA World Cup 2014 and the Olympic Games of 2016. Political Stability of government Brazil is governed by a President, who will be elected once every 4 years, and 20 key ministers. Since October 2010 Dilma Rousseff of the Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT) has been governing Brazil, making it PT’s third successive term. She is reportedly ranked 18 on the Forbes Powerful People list and ranked 3 on the Forbes Power Women list. She is also very popular among Brazilians, with 75 percent of them voted that they trust her leadership and 63 percent indicating that they view her government favourably. This indicates that there is a stability of government in the host country, bringing assurance for companies that wants to invest in Brazil. Social stability Brazil has four major labour unions which include: Sindicato dos bancarios (Banker’s association), Sindicato dos metalurgicos (Metal worker’s association), Sindicato dos comerciarios (Commerce worker’s association) and Sindicato dos professores (Teacher’s union). These four major labour unions are affiliated to three major organisations namely: Central Unica dos Trabalhadores (CUT), Coordenacao Nacional de Lutas (Conlutas) and Forca Sindical. Early this year, 50,000 Brazilians went on a march for labor rights. A total of six organization incuding CUT were involved in the organization of the march. However, marches by labour unions are not common in Brazil, lowering the operating risk. Brazil has also been famous for their tyrant drug lords and they have been a threat to the social stability as they sell drugs at a cheap rate to residents. It was also reported that when the drug addicts are desperate for drugs, they will rob homes and kill each other leading to an increase in crimes rates. The increase in crime rates will lead to an ownership risk. In attempts to improve the social stability, Brazilian police have made an effort to track down wanted drug dealers. On 11 May 2012, the Brazilian police killed a drug lord in an operation with a machine gun fire from a helicopter. This has raised awareness on the way the police carries out with their duties and it hightlighted the country’s security. However, on 9 May 2013, a video was posted on the internet showing how the police managed to stop a plane with their car. The plane contained over 230 kilograms of cocaine base paste. This case highlighted the police efficiency and effectiveness, redeeming its reputation. Relationships between governments Brazil is a member of Mercosur, an economic and political agreement among Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Venezuela, Uruguay and Bolivia. Member countries are all Brazil’s neighbouring countries and Mercosur purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of people, currency, and goods within its members. Other than maintaining good neighbouring countries relationships, Brazil also maintains good relationship with their major trading partners. Brazil major trade partner includes EU, United States (US), Japan, China and Argentina and it maintains good bilateral ties with them. Brazil knows that US is an important major trade partner and history of their bilateral ties dates back to Pre-World War II period. Their good bilateral ties could also be seen by the setting up of the Brazil U. S. Business Council. On 25 of April 2013, Argentina and Brazil president have met up to talk about bilateral ties, reaffirming strong political ties. Brazil also maintained good bilateral ties with China and it can be seen from Appendix 1. 1. Participation in International Organisations According to Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Brazil is a member of 70 International organisations such as United Nations (UN), World Trade Organisation (WTO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (G20). In 1945, Brazil was one of the founding members of the UN. Since 1 January 1995, Brazil has been a member of WTO. This would assure investors as this shows Brazil seriousness in wanting to trade. Furthermore, Brazil has to follow the organisations rules and regulations. Legal environment Brazil has been rated by Economist Intelligence Unit as ‘C’ in terms of the level of riskiness in 2012. This shows that over the next two years, there might be possible developments that might substantially change the environment of operating business. This is probably because of Brazil unclear legal and regulatory. Audi CEO has reportedly indicated that the unclear laws and regulations make it impossible for the company to set up a vehicle assembly there. In terms of World Competitiveness Ranking, the country scored 4. 4 out of 7 in years 2012/2013 despite government inefficiency, high inflation rate and low quality of infrastructures. Brazil jumped 5 spots to be ranked 48 out of 144 countries due to the rise in the use of Information and Communications Technology, easy financing access a fairly sophisticated business community and is one of the world’s largest internal markets. It was reported that ICT is use in Brazil’s education system, highlighting the country’s improvement. Looking into the ease of doing business, Brazil is ranked 128 in 2012. It now takes 13 procedures and 119 days to start up a business instead of 17 procedures and 157 days. French chef Pierre Cornet-Vernet mentioned to BBC news reporters that â€Å"Its like a game to set up a factory and confectionary in Brazil. Both operations have to be registered as a separate business and tax rate for the items he sells are different for each product. According to Transparency International, Brazil ranked 69 out of 174 countries in terms of the corruption level. It has done better than majority of the countries but corruptions score is a low 43, indicating that Brazil has serious corruption problems. The corruption score improved since 2010 and this could be due to Dilma Rousseff efforts to reduce corruptions. In 2011, Dilma Rousseff removed four ministers as they have been accused to misusing of public funds by the media. In 2012, a number of officials have also been repordely dismissed as they were accused of influence peddling, fraud and corruption. When it comes to government intervention in availability and content of info, The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) offer limited number of statistical data. Even though it frequently updates their website with data such as IPCA, IPP and PME (refer to appendix 1. 2), it does not update many other data such as population data (refer to appendix 1. 3). Economic When investing in a country, it is important to look at some major indicators to determine the country’s attractiveness. Appendix 1. 4 shows the important indicators that are beneficial to companies who wish to invest in Brazil. Population A market represents the number of potential consumers companies can reach out to. If a country has a high population, it would translate into a bigger market for companies. This indicator is important for companies who want to set up operations in Brazil because it helps them to estimate the number of consumers they can expect to sell their goods and services to. Since 2010, Brazil’s population have been increasing at a steady rate of 2 to 3 million each year. As of July 2012, Brazil’s population reached 199,321,413. The number is expected to rise to 201,009,622 in July this year. This means that the market size is increasing and companies can expect more consumers to purchase their goods or services, making it more attractive for companies that want to invest in Brazil. Unemployment When unemployment rate increase it shows that more local / foreign companies are investing in Brazil. This is an important indicator for a company that wants to invest in Brazil because is a gauge of whether the government policies are stable and effective. Brazil unemployment rate reached its decade low at 2012, with a low rate of only 5. 5%, down from 2011 rate of 5. 97% and 2010 rate of 6. 742%. However, this rate is expected in increase to 6% this year and 6. 5% in year 2014, making it unattractive for companies that wants to invest in Brazil. The unemployment rate may be due to Brazil’s lack of skilled labours. Currently, Brazil is experiencing a lack of skilled labours and the government is making effort to lure foreign highly skilled workers to Brazil. Economic Growth Rate An economic growth rate provides insight into the general direction and scale of growth for the overall economy without looking at inflation or deflation. The economic growth rate is essential for a company that wants to invest in Brazil as it shows the economic progress of a country. The indicator used to identify the economic growth is GDP growth rate. In 2010, Brazil registered a GDP growth rate of 7. 5%, this decrease to 2. 7% in 2011 and continues to decrease in 2012, to 0. 9%. If the GDP growth rate continues to stay at a slow rate, Brazil will be unattractive to companies as the economy is not growing well. However, it is estimated that the GDP growth rate would be 3. 10% this year and 3. 65% in year 2014, showing some signs of optimism for investors. Purchasing Power Purchasing power gives companies an estimate of how much a citizen of Brazil will spend. It is important as it helps to access the country’s standard of living. The higher the purchasing power, the more an average consumer would spend, vice versa. For purchasing power, the indicator used is GDP per capita. However, this might not be an effective as there might be outliers in the statistics, causing the data results to be reliable to a certain extent only. Brazil’s reported 2010 GDP per capita was $11,216. 095 and 2011, it increases to $12,594. A $515 decrease was seen when 2012 rate was compared with 2011’s. This indicates that Brazilians purchasing power has decreased. However, GDP per capita is expected to increase this year by $261. 83 to $12,340. 183 and a continual rising to $12,994. 678 in 2014, showing future investors a positive outlook. Inflation rate Inflation rate shows the rate at which prices of a group of specific goods and services have increased over a year. If countries have high inflation rates, it may appear unattractive to companies as this would translate into higher cost of production, a decrease in the va lue of profits, a higher cost of capital, an erosion of consumers’ purchasing power and pressure from employees to increase wages. The inflation rate in Brazil is not stable. It increased by 1. 6% from 2010 to 2011, decreased by 1. 1% from 2011 to 2012 and had once again increased to 6. 59% as of March 2013. However, the forecast inflation rate of 2014 is expected to be 4. 5%, a 2. 09% decrease from the March 2013 rate. This is not a good sign as a high inflation rate had led a sharp rise in the price of food and other consumer items. It will also make Brazil less attractive to companies whom want to maximise profit as they would need to spend more on cost of production. Degree of consumer optimism The degree of optimism reflects on how consumers feel about the economy and their personal financial situation which will directly affect the consumers’ spending activity. If the degree is high, consumers are expected to spend more, save less as they feel secure. One such indicator that calculates the degree of consumer optimism is the Consumer Confidence Index (CCI). As profit has always been at the back of the mind of companies, this indicator will allow company to see if consumers are willing to spend. When compared with the 4 year available CCI, November 2012 saw the CCI reaching its peak at 120. , indicating consumers degree of optimism. Currently, the estimated CCI for May 2013 is 113. 4, which is a decrease from 2012 figures. Balance of Payment (BOP) BOP shows investors the economic health of a country; it measures the total flow of money coming into the country minus the total flow of money going out of the country. It shows the amount of companies investing Brazil, th e import and export figures, investment income and expenditure, portfolio investment and capital of Brazil which are important to companies that wants to know more about Brazil’s financial health. There is a decrease in exports and an increase in imports from 2011 to 2012 which shows that the government has been spending more than earning. This might be one of the causes of the slow GDP growth. A deficit in CA has cause a fall in value of currency. However, the 2011 deficit was fully financed by foreign direct investment, which presented strong inflows throughout the year in a demonstration of continued foreign investor confidence in the Brazilian economy. In 2011, FDIs investments reach $66. billion, an $18. 1 billion increase from the previous year. However, foreign investors were less confident about Brazil in 2011 when it came to portfolio investments. The net inflow of portfolio side in 2011 amounted to 17. 5 billion, a sharp decrease in 2010 which was 67. 8 billion. Many foreign investors pulled out of Brazilian stocks and bonds in 2011 as the government hiked taxes on different investment options during the course of the year. From 2011 to 2012, FDI slightly decrease by approximately 1 billion. It was enough to cover its current account deficit. Foreign investment has remained steady in Brazil as investors see more opportunities in the South American rather than in Europe or United States. Brazil is expected to keep attracting foreign capital in coming years due to the 2014 World Cup soccer tournament and the 2016 Olympics. Socio-Cultural Factors Language Portuguese the official language of Brazil is the mirror of Brazil’s culture, it is the main means of communication among individuals (spoken by more than 99% of the population). Brazil also emphasizes on high context when it comes to doing business. Its agreement is based on trust, negotiations are slow and rituals and they values personal relations and goodwill. In Brazil, low emphasis is placed on punctuality and precise plans. Meetings are also often hindered or cancelled without any preceding warning. Value and attributes The Brazilians values relationship and that it is essential to get to know a business partner personally and professionally. Brazil is a society that places great positioning of family in the social structure. It practices nepotism where family members are found to be working in the same company as this signifies a sign of trust, which Brazilians highly values. Due to economic instability, hyperinflation and difficult government policies, Brazilians focuses more on short term rather than long term planning, making them present-orientated. Manners and Customs In Brazil, Brazilians prefer to entertain business partners in restaurants rather than at their homes. However, if entertained at home, it is polite to send flowers thanking the host. Brazilian men and women greet each other by exchanging kisses by placing their cheeks together and kissing the air. Religion and Beliefs 73. 6% of the people in Brazil are Catholic whereas the minorities are Protestant, Spiritualist and Bantu/voodoo. As Catholicism is the predominant religion in Brazil, many of events held in Brazil have a strong Catholic influence. (Refer to appendix 1. 5) Technology Infrastructure According to the World Economic Forum, Brazil Networked Readiness Index (NRI) increased by 5 ranks in 2013, the nation is current ranked 60 out of 142 countries. This shows the improvement in the readiness to use ICT to boost competitiveness and well-being. In 2011, Brazil, the 6th biggest civil aviation industry in the world, carried 87 million passengers. It is also the top 25 list of the world’s largest freight industries. (Appendix 1. 6) In time for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, Brazil airports will see an array of improvements in infrastructure and services in the near future, thanks to the Logistics Investment Program: Airports, launched on Dec. 20, 2012 by Brazil president. The program saw Brazil opening two of its international airports, Rio de Janeiros Galeao airport and Belo Horizontes Confins airport, to private investors for modernising planning. Many reputed international companies have recorded high growth in Brazil’s telecommunication industry as the number of broadband subscribers per 100 subscribers has increased by 30 percent. (Appendix 1. 7) Brazil is ranked 45 out of 155 countries and scored 3. 13 in the World Bank’s logistic performance index (LPI). The score is a 0. 7 decrease when compared with its 2010 score. Information Technology (IT) Brazil takes up more than 45% of total money in Latin America’s IT market, making it the largest in the region. The country, an innovator and early adapter of new technologies, seen an 11% growth in the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) sector for the period 2008-2013. In April 2013, Brazil’s Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation announced that it is willing to invest $78 million for locals and foreign companies to build tech companies catering to the Brazilian consumer and creating local jobs. This will benefit the locals who would have a job and higher technological goods. It will also benefit foreign investors who need funding. Skill level of workforce According to the World Bank, Brazil Technicians in Research and Development (RD) (per million people) have increased by 110 (per million people) from 2008 to 2010. (Appendix 1. 8) This shows that more and more people are taking up higher skilled jobs. Environmental Ranking in number 9 on the top ten countries that faces the most natural disasters, Brazil has one of the most natural disasters that affects the life and property of many people living in it. Deforestation One of the major and current issues faced in Brazil is deforestation. Even though Brazil deforestation rate has decreased nearly 80% since 2005, Brazil still has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world. To stop this phenomenon, the Brazilian government strives toward the preservation and sustainable development of the Brazilian biomes. Pollution Pollution from industry and vehicle exhaust fumes is a problem in Rio and Belo Horizonte. Since 1976, the government made it mandatory to blend anhydrous ethanol with gasoline, fluctuating between 10% to 22%. In order to solve the problem, the government of Brazil has implemented a policy to reduce daily traffic usage by rotation system. In the rural areas, pesticides and industrial waste and the degradation of aquatic ecosystems due to the installation of hydroelectric plants led to water pollution. Additionally, heavy shipping activities and offshore oil drilling caused many marine species to be endangered due to the oil spills. Poor waste management Another environmental issue faced by Brazil is the poor waste management. To address this issue, international organizations such as United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has been working with Brazil to create a sustainable waste management system that promotes environmental preservation and conservation along with the protection of public health. Natural disasters Due to the frequent occurrence of natural disasters, businesses in the affected area will definitely be affected. In January 2011, there was a flood in the mountainous resort areas north of Rio de Janeiro which led to the death of 800 due to mudslides and floods. Fortunately, businesses such as the hotel operations managed to recover from the disaster in and around 85% of the affected hotels resumed operations within 30 days. Beside the efficient crisis teams, the Brazilian governments also help in the recovery of the affected cities and promote actions to rebuild the tourism image of the region through international and national campaigns. Conclusion To conclude, Political, Economic, Socio cultural, Technological and Environment (PESTE) plays an important role in any countries attractiveness for investment. Lacking in any of these factors, especially political factor, will cause a lost in investors. After looking at Brazil PESTE factor, our group concludes that Brazil is a feasible place to invest in. Political Brazil has a stable government, stable labour unions, maintains good relationships with neighouring countries and major trading partners, participates in international organisation and an improving legal system. Even though Brazil’s legal system may not be very attractive, it is certainly improving. This could be due to President Dilma efforts to remove corruptions and improving the ease of doing business. However, companies that want to invest in Brazil must be prepared to face possible delays and unexpected taxes. The nation’s good relationships with neighbouring countries and major trading partners will give investor a peace of mind and will reduce Brazil to countries transfer risk. However, Brazil is lacking in the area of security, which leads to high ownership risk due to the prominent influence of drug lords. The government can help to improve Brazil’s social stability by allocating a higher budget to the Ministry of Defense. allowing the Police to purchase better equipment and machinery. Additionally, the ministry can also consider sending the police for enhancement courses so that they will know how to deal with various situations better. It will also improve the police effectiveness and efficiency to ensure and this will in turn result in a lower crime rate. Economic This year, Brazil’s GDP growth and GDP per capita are expected to rise, showing signs of optimism for countries that wants to invest in Brazil as it shows that the economy is growing and that consumers will spend more on goods and services investing companies produce. Even though Brazil inflation rates are relatively high now, the number is expected to decrease in 2014. This would bring ease for investors, who want to invest in Brazil as investors can expect lower cost of production, maximising their profits. Additionally, companies will not be hit by current inflation price directly because it takes a long time before companies can start their operations in Brazil. The constant increase in population is a good sign for investors as it shows the increasing market. Additionally, Brazil’s CCI does not fall below 100, making Brazil relatively optimistic and safe for investors who want to invest in the country as the can be assured that they are reaching out to a market that would buy their goods and services. The higher unemployment rate is unattractive and will affect a company’s decision on whether they should invest in Brazil because it shows that it the country’s government policies may not be working well. Additionally, the lack of skilled labour can be factor as it indicates that top management post may not be filled up and this can be worrying because in a high context business environment like Brazil, it is better to have locals filling up the managerial position. Companies should invest in Brazil as it will help to improve Brazil’s economy. With more foreign direct investments, it will help to create jobs for people in the country and it will improve their standard of living. On top of that, it will help to curb inflation rate and reduce cost of living in Brazil. The government can try to cut down on its spending on imports to close its current account deficit gap which will increase its currency value. It is a good chance for foreign investors investing in Brazil especially with the upcoming 2014 World Cup soccer tournament and 2016 Olympics. A lot of tourists will visit Brazil during that period of time and spent their money in that country thus increasing their revenue. This will in turn improve Brazil’s economy. Therefore with their stable economy for the past three years, Brazil is a suitable country to invest in. Socio -Cultural Primarily, after analysing, the social –cultural factor of Brazil, our group feels that if companies that want to break into the Brazilian market should have the connections or relationship even before entering the market. Additionally, the companies should get a Portuguese spoken employee to represent them in the country so as to gain market insight and building relationships. Due to Brazil high context culture, employees that represent the company for discussion in Brazil should have high patience. High patience is essential as Brazilians place low emphasis on punctuality and meetings could be delayed or cancelled without prior warning. Initially, companies may face some difficulties establishing relationship as it may be deemed as â€Å"troublesome†. However, it is a long term benefit after a relationship has been established. Technology Brazil infrastructure has been improving and this is a good sign. Infrastructures are important as it is the structure of a country and it will make transportation of goods easier, improving the country’s efficiency, making it attractive for foreign investors. The increase in the number of people in RD gives investor a positive outlook as it shows an increasing number of Brazil’s skilled labour. But investors must keep in mind that there is still an overall shortage of skilled labour. However, the decrease in Brazil’s LPI could be a worrying factor for companies that want to invest in Brazil. Companies that want to invest there must be prepared to face logistics issues. Environment Environmental issues are difficult to manage because natural disaster cannot be prevented. From the 2011 recovery case, we can tell how experience Brazil’s management companies are in such downturn issues. The fact that they managed to resume business within a month, even though the area is heavily damaged, shows that the companies have good crisis management plans. With its good unexpected crisis management, this proved to be one of the strengths that the Brazilian companies possess that will put foreign investors’ mind at ease.

Social Inequality in the Work Force free essay sample

â€Å"What is the difference between sex and gender? â€Å" is an inquiry which some individuals seem confused upon because both concepts are often misunderstood. Sex is a biological distinction between males and females, while gender is a socially constructed definition that relates to characteristics defining masculinity and femininity (Kilic). The latter is a structural feature of society, as the public maintains the dominant belief in preserving male advantages. This ideology that the public has learned to accept has led to unfair treatment against women especially in employment opportunities. Women specifically experience deprivation in the work force as they face discrimination based on their sex. Many women in the employment industries have the least authority, and are confide to lower-ranking positions than men. In â€Å"Difference and Dominance: On Sex Discrimination† by Catharine MacKinnon, the author offers a variety of concepts as to how a particular gender (male) is constructed as being dominant in society. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Inequality in the Work Force or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page MacKinnon introduces the theory of the dominance approach, which she believes parallel society’s practice of social inequality. The ideology of gender identity has created injustice for women as they have become subordinate to men in terms of power and status. Similarly in the article, â€Å"An Overview of Sex Inequality at Work† by Irene Padavic and Barbara Reskin, the authors also claim that gender is socially constructed based on the dominance approach. MacKinnon’s interpretation of the dominance approach is behind the construction of society’s ideology on gender identity; Padavic and Reskin’s article also provides an enactment of this approach, particularly on the issue of sex inequality for women in the workplace. Women experience sex segregation of jobs, sex differences in promotion/authority, and also differences in their earnings. The discrimination that women endure is a result of society’s ideology of the dominance approach. This is a concept where, â€Å"sex inequality questions are questions of systemic dominance, of male supremacy† (MacKinnon 414). MacKinnon states that society has constructed an ideology where men are believed to have more power over women as a sex. The unequal distribution of power leads to men being at the top of the hierarchy while women are at the bottom. As a result, the oppression that women experience is reflected from subordination to men in society. MacKinnon argues that, â€Å"the dominance approach centers on the most sex-differential abuses of women as a gender, abuses that sex equality law in its difference garb could not confront† (413). Women are typically the ones who face abuse in terms of rape, sexual harassment, and battery. As a result, females are usually seen as inferior because men do not face these types of abuse (MacKinnon 413). The pornography industry is another example of how women are seen as being powerless against men. By exploiting females for the sexual entertainment of men, the power differential is maintained in society. Similar to MacKinnon’s theory of the dominance approach, Padavic and Reskin’s article provide examples of how this is evident in today’s society. â€Å"An Overview of Sex Inequality at Work† focuses on women being discriminated on their jobs because of their gender. Padavic and Reskin claim that sex inequality occur in workplaces because it is embedded in the ideology of many societies (341). Like MacKinnon’s assertions, society focuses on a belief that gives preference for males to benefit. Padavic and Reskin argue that gender ideology is, â€Å"a set of widely shared assumptions about the way the sexes are and what the relations between them are and ought to be† (342). This is one of the factors that explain why there is sex inequality in the workplace. In this patriarchal society, men are seen as being the real â€Å"breadwinners† who deserve higher-paying jobs. On the other hand, women are seen as being homemakers who do not need real jobs that pay enough money to support their family (Padavic and Reskin 343). The depiction of the dominance approach is evident as employers also play a part in upholding this ideology. Employers discriminate women against professions that are seen as being typically male jobs. In the work force, sex segregation of jobs play an important role that prevent women from having equal opportunities as men. According to Padavic and Reskin, sex segregation emphasizes on, â€Å"the concentration of men and women in different kinds of work† (340). This philosophy expresses that males should typically work in industries that are defined as being male jobs, such as construction or mining. There is an assumption that blue-collar or physical labor are nontraditional jobs for women. Women are seen as being physically less strong than men, so they should be excluded from the occupations of hard labor such as construction. There are also sex differences in the promotion and authority of a woman in the work force. Based on one’s gender, certain groups of people have sex advantages with his/her jobs. As a sex, men still dominate in having the highest ranks in most occupations and professions (Padavic and Reskin 341). Under the dominant approach, men are still seen as being the gender with more power, while women are given disadvantages because they are seen as inferior to the opposite sex. Women also have less authority; as seen in the example of the Wal-Mart company, â€Å"although more than two thirds (2/3) of its hourly employees are female, they hold only one third (1/3) of store management jobs, and less than 15% of store manager positions† (Schwartz 274). These statistics prove that there is an imbalance of how much power one has based on their gender. If an employee is a male, he has the higher chance of gaining a store management position. However, if an employee is a female, she has the chance of being passed over for a promotion option. It is unfair for women be left out of the same opportunities to advance as men. Without these authorities, many women also do not have a chance to voice their opinions on what matters. Finally, sex inequality for women at the workplace is evident in the difference of earnings based on a person’s sex. Statistics show that women on average have lower incomes than men. As Padavic and Reskin claim, â€Å"elderly unmarried women had average incomes of $11,161 a year compared to $14,769 for elderly unmarried men† (341). One explanation for the staggering difference in earnings between men and women is because of the ideological assumption that only males have jobs that are â€Å"real work. † As mentioned before, society has constructed the gender of males as the breadwinners of the group who also deserve priority in higher-paying jobs. On the other hand, women are assumed to be domestic workers; the work they perform is not real, therefore they do not need to be paid enough to support themselves (Padavic and Reskin 342-43). The points that Padavic and Reskin draw attention to prove that MacKinnon’s dominance approach is in effect within society. Males as a gender have more power when compared to females; as a result, the public still upholds the dominant belief in preserving advantages for men. This philosophy that society endorses has created unequal opportunities for women in sex segregation on jobs, sex differences in promotion opportunities, and the difference in incomes. The ideology of gender that society has constructed is making women face deprivation in the workface. Gender discrimination is one example that shows why society needs to change their beliefs. If the public still upholds the philosophy of the dominance approach, they risk the consequences that will happen in the future. Men will continue to have supremacy over women. This will limit females from advancing in terms of social opportunities. Women will not be able to be promoted in their careers, such as being managers or supervisors. It will not seem fair for women if they do not receive equal pay when compared to men. Today there are many women who are single mothers in America, which makes them the breadwinners of the household.

How to Start a Writing Group

How to Start a Writing Group How to Start a Writing Group How to Start a Writing Group By Mark Nichol This is the second post on our series about writing groups. The first one is 5 Reasons to Start a Writing Group. You’ve determined to seriously pursue a writing career, but you feel like you need support and feedback. Although you joined a couple of writing groups, you dropped out of each one because the fit just didn’t feel right. What do you do now? Start your own group, of course. 1. Compose How many members do you want? What level of experience should they have? Should all members be writing for the same market? It’s best to start small (up to half a dozen people), seek people with similar experience levels (writers with one or more published short stories, for example), and select others writing in the same genre or niche and working in the same form, whether short stories or novels as you are. The closer the skills and interests of group members, the more productive it will be. (But be flexible about demographic details such as gender and age.) 2. Propose Design a simple but informative flyer. Specify the details about ideal group composition you have decided on, pick a day and time for regular meetings (the most frequently recommended meeting duration is two hours), and provide contact information. Print copies and post them, but be discriminating: Target writer habitats such as bookstores (especially those that sell used books), cafes, and schools, and avoid blanketing general-purpose bulletin boards. 3. Screen Briefly interview people who contact you. Tell them you’ll check back after you’ve lined up the number of people you want to start with. Take notes and, immediately after the call or email exchange, evaluate them with a simple yes, maybe, or no and perhaps a couple of notes to remind you why you assigned that grade (â€Å"sincere asked about my writing†; â€Å"insecure? but good fit,† â€Å"arrogant†). If a â€Å"no† persists in trying to join, tell them, â€Å"I’m looking for people who aren’t yet quite at your level† or â€Å"I have the number I want, but I’ll keep you in mind if someone drops out.† 4. Form When you have enough â€Å"yes† candidates, consider adding a couple of strong â€Å"maybe† prospects in case one or two people drop out; if you have more defections later, you can always recruit others or disband and start again. If three of you work well together but don’t feel comfortable continuing with one or more of the others, break up the group and start over with that cooperative core. But take care to avoid acting like a clique, and be diplomatic. 5. Locate Choose a setting and stay with it. If you plan to host at your home, stick to that location rather than rotating among everyone’s domiciles. Better yet, meet at a local library (some have small meeting rooms available for just this type of purpose) or a community center, or a quiet cafe. 6. Schedule Contact and confirm your finalists, and if anyone backs out, keep recruiting from the â€Å"maybe† list or from new candidates. Set up the first meeting; if the day and time doesn’t work for someone, jot down their preference and bring it up when the rest of the group convenes for the first time. If the alternate day and time is equally convenient for everybody, consider switching for subsequent meetings. If not, wish the person good luck in finding a group that meets at a better time for them. 7. Assign Ask members to bring an excerpt from a current project something that will take five minutes or less to read so that others will have an immediate grasp of everyone’s skill and style. Next up: How to conduct writing groups. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Apply to, Apply for, and Apply withStory Writing 10150 Plain-Language Substitutions for Wordy Phrases

Accepting Complements

Accepting Complements Accepting Complements Accepting Complements By Mary There are a number of words that people have a hard time keeping straight. Usually these words sound alike, but have very different meanings. For instance, should you say Please accept my complement! or Please accept my compliment!? Accept or Except? Accept is to take or receive something, while except means something is left out. I am proud to accept this award. Everyone except Jim was at the party. Complement or Compliment? Complement is something that complements something else or goes well with it, while compliment is a praise. The new chair is the perfect complement to the rest of the furniture in the room. My boss complimented my performance in the new account presentation. The next time you are including these words in your writing, stop and reflect on the true meaning of the sentence so that you can be sure you made the right choice! Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. ProgrammeOne Fell SwoopHow Do You Pronounce "Often"?

Government 2 Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Government 2 - Dissertation Example There are times that legislative branch will require the executive branch to be witness against a certain issue. This executive privilege prevents the executive branch to share information. The executive privilege will make sure that the discussions between the president and his advisers regarding their decision can be protected. If this privilege is eliminated, there will be issues and questions why the executive branch reached to certain decision. It might be that there will be clash in the power in the branches of government. 2. What specific items out to be listed on a report card that is used to evaluate a federal bureaucracy? Bureaucracy is considered a process of organizing people and work based on the principles of hierarchical authority and formalized rule. This is considered the most efficient means to organize people to work in unity on great tasks. American government is in practicing federal bureaucracy. There is fragmentation of power in the American political system. I n order to check the federal bureaucracy, there are specific items used to evaluate this policy or process. The first is to check if the whether the power is disseminated properly.

Post devolution, do separate or dual identities exist in England and Dissertation

Post devolution, do separate or dual identities exist in England and Britain - Dissertation Example Such assumptions were based on the esoteric understandings of the two labels, British and English, and tended to affect the framing of the concept of a so called national identity that were based on territorial differentiation and the respective identities, nature of citizenship, and social inclusion. The nationalistic identity of any state which is dependent on its socio-political characteristics, may go through various transformations (like devolution); and under pressures from the changed local, political, and social conditions, may undergo differentiation. Under changed circumstances the nationalistic identity of ‘Britishness’ may take a back seat, with the regional identity of ‘Englishness,’ eclipsing the former. ... The Existence of Separate or Dual Identities in England and Britain post devolution period 1 Introduction 1.1 Background History â€Å"The history of England [is] not in England but in America and Asia† J.R. Seele Since 1997, United Kingdom has been undergoing devolution as regards to its 4 member states, England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. England has been ‘eventually promised’ a new and ‘Greater London Authority,’ with a separate and Assembly and mayor, while separate regionally elected assemblies are also on the annals for England; while the remaining 3 states have been given varying degrees of autonomy in their assemblies. Thus this entire process of devolution spells out into new territorial contours within the realms of United Kingdom. A look at the history shows us that Britain did not quite have a homogenous nature right from the time of its conception, and the then British foreign secretary Robin Cook, ascertained that the concept of this â€Å"homogeneity of British identity that some people assume to be the norm was confined to a relatively brief period. It lasted from the Victorian era of imperial expansion to the aftermath of the Second World War...The diversity of modern Britain expressed through devolution and multiculturalism is more consistent with the historical experience of our islands† (Cook, 2001). The topic or concept of ‘British,’ after being reviewed by various experts has been found to consist of a large and gaping conceptual void (Kumar, 2000, 576). Historical records, in general, are found aplenty, starting with political, constitutional, social, and economic histories of England, yet there has

Assessment and Learner Essay Example for Free

Assessment and Learner Essay This discussion paper is part of a series being published and disseminated by the Office of the Queensland School Curriculum Council. The purpose of this series is to encourage discussion on various issues concerning assessment and reporting. Teacher observation is one of several types of assessment techniques recommended by the Council in its Position and Guidelines on Assessment and Reporting for Years 1 to 10 and in its syllabus documents for the key learning areas. Other assessment techniques include consultation, focused analysis, peer assessment and self-assessment. The Position and Guidelines state that: ‘Observation involves teachers in observing students as they participate in planned activities. Teacher observation occurs continually as a natural part of the learning and teaching process and can be used to gather a broad range of information about students’ demonstrations of learning outcomes’ (p. 16). Teacher observation has been valued as an important assessment technique in the lower primary school, but has in the past received less attention in later year levels. Secondary schools especially have favoured formal testing and structured assessment tasks rather than in-situ observation, although there has been some movement towards in-situ observation in some subjects in recent years, even in the senior years. The Council’s Position and Guidelines and syllabus documents elevate teacher observation to a more prominent position in the range of assessment techniques that teachers might use. Other techniques have been identified as consultation and focused analysis as well as peer and self-assessment. Focused analysis includes more formal assessment procedures such as set tests and set tasks. However, these categories of assessment techniques are not necessarily distinct. For example, as this paper explains, observation may be employed in association with focused analysis, especially where what is observed is student performance on a set task. This discussion paper is not an official policy statement of the Council. Rather, it represents the views of the author, Dr Graham Maxwell, of the School of Education, The University of Queensland. As such, it offers a personal perspective on the issues. Dr Maxwell has been involved in research and consultation on assessment for many years in Australia, USA and UK, ranging over all sectors and levels of education. He has taught courses and conducted workshops on assessment for pre-service and in-service teachers for 30 years. He has also been involved in recent Council deliberations on assessment and reporting. The audience for this discussion paper is professional educators, especially schoolteachers and administrators who must deal with assessment and reporting practice in classrooms and schools. Such people already know a great deal about assessment and reporting theories and practices, and this discussion paper builds on that knowledge. The hope is that the discussion paper will serve as a basis for professional debate, development workshops and collaborative planning. iii The Office of the Council would be pleased to have your reactions to and comments on the discussion paper, as well as any examples of ways in which the discussion paper may have helped to clarify or resolve any theoretical or practical problems you are facing in the implementation of Council syllabuses. These reactions, comments and examples would assist the Office of the Council in deciding what further assistance it might be able to provide on these issues. JE Tunstall Director Queensland School Curriculum Council October 2001 iv CONTENTS Preface Introduction Arguments for valuing teacher observation Collection and recording of evidence Planning for teacher observation Factors affecting validity of teacher observations and what to do about them 1. Prejudgments and prejudices 2. Selective perception 3. Providing inadvertent clues 4. Inappropriate inference 5. Inconsistency Conclusion Some useful references on teacher observation iii 1 2 5 7 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 v Teacher Observation in Student Assessment INTRODUCTION Teacher observation is one of the assessment techniques recommended in the Position and Guidelines on Assessment and Reporting for Years 1 to 10 of the Queensland School Curriculum Council (the Council). For the implementation of Council syllabuses, assessment is seen as involving a variety of school-based (teacher-enacted) techniques for profiling student demonstrations of learning outcomes. Teacher observation, that is, observation of a student by a teacher, is one of those techniques. It can be used in conjunction with other techniques. 1 Teacher observation has been accepted readily in the past as a legitimate source of information for recording and reporting student demonstrations of learning outcomes in early childhood education. As the student progresses to later years of schooling, less and less attention typically is given to teacher observation and more and more attention typically is given to formal assessment procedures involving required tests and tasks taken under explicit constraints of context and time. However, teacher observation is capable of providing substantial information on student demonstration of learning outcomes at all levels of education. For teacher observation to contribute to valid judgments concerning student learning outcomes, evidence needs to be gathered and recorded systematically. Systematic gathering and recording of evidence requires preparation and foresight. This does not necessarily mean that all aspects of the process of observation need to be anticipated but that the approach taken is deliberate rather than happenstance. It is necessary, at least, to know in advance both what kinds of learning outcomes are anticipated and how evidence will be recorded. Adequate records are essential for good assessment. Teacher observation can be characterised as two types: incidental and planned. †¢ Incidental observation occurs during the ongoing (deliberate) activities of teaching and learning and the interactions between teacher and students. In other words, an unplanned opportunity emerges, in the context of classroom activities, where the teacher observes some aspect of individual student learning. Whether incidental observation can be used as a basis for formal assessment and reporting may depend on the records that are kept. Planned observation involves deliberate planning of an opportunity for the teacher to observe specific learning outcomes. This planned opportunity may occur in the context of regular classroom activities or may occur through the setting of an assessment task (such as a practical or performance activity). 2 †¢ 1 2 Other possibilities for collecting evidence by observation exist, including observations by another teacher, observations by other students, and student self-observation. This paper concentrates on teacher observation and does not consider these additional forms of observation. Ultimately, the teacher must judge the validity and relevance of all forms of evidence, so these alternative forms of evidence involve similar principles of assessment to those applicable to other forms of evidence, including teacher observation. ‘Classroom’ should be interpreted liberally. It may include settings outside the school, such as field excursions, public presentations and work experience. What matters is the presence of an assessor, typically the teacher, to observe and record the event. 1 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting ARGUMENTS FOR VALUING TEACHER OBSERVATION Teacher observation is an important but underutilised assessment technique. It is sometimes argued that teachers are unable to make appropriate and dependable assessment judgments from observations of students in natural settings. The table (below) details some of the claims of this viewpoint, together with some relevant rebuttals. Handled carefully, teacher observations can provide important evidence for assessment judgments. In some cases, they provide the only way of obtaining evidence about particular learning outcomes, especially those involving practical techniques, performance activities, ‘real life’ projects and group work. Table 1: Arguments against teacher observations and rebuttals of those arguments Arguments against teacher observations Lack of representativeness Students may not demonstrate all relevant learning outcomes in natural settings. They may know or know how but the context may not prompt them to demonstrate this. Lack of observation Teachers may not observe the demonstration of a learning outcome when it occurs, either because their attention is els ewhere or because they fail to recognise it. Lack of control of influences The student can derive unintended cues and prompts from the setting, even from the teacher, and these can be unnoticed by the teacher. Student performance may then be misinterpreted. Lack of standardisation All students do not undertake the same tasks under the same conditions. Teacher judgments of student demonstrations of learning outcomes are therefore undependable. Lack of objectivity Teacher judgments are subjective and prone to inconsistencies. Too much is left to the discretion of the teacher. Possibility of stereotyping Subjective judgments allow the possibility of stereotyping of students in terms of other performances or characteristics. Possibility of bias Subjective judgments allow the possibility of conscious or unconscious bias for or against particular individuals or groups. Rebuttal of those arguments Learning outcomes that have not been demonstrated can be deliberately prompted. Assessment should be planned as well as incidental. Teachers can ensure that assessment is comprehensive. Over time, teachers have many opportunities for observation. It is not critical if particular opportunities for observation are missed. Some observation is deliberate and focused. No single occasion is sufficient for judging a student’s demonstration of learning outcomes. Multiple opportunities and a variety of contexts allow cross-checking the robustness of the student’s performance. Quality requirements for teacher judgments are ‘evidence-based’ and ‘defensible’. Tailoring and adaptation allow optimum student performance and holistic interpretation of the evidence (taking contextual factors into consideration). All assessment involves sequences of subjective decisions; mechanistic marking schemes reflect earlier design decisions. Procedures to strengthen and verify teacher judgments can be introduced. Stereotyping is not inevitable. Each assessment occasion can be approached as a fresh opportunity to test hypotheses derived from prior impressions. Conscious bias is unethical. Unconscious bias requires constant vigilance. It is difficult for bias to survive evidence-based justification to students and their parents (a form of accountability). 2 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment An important argument in support of teacher observation is that teachers have access to a rich and diverse range of evidence on student learning outcomes from observations of their students; and that the capability of teachers to collect and interpret this range of evidence should be respected. Otherwise, a rich source of evidence on student learning outcomes is being ignored. In any case, the issue is not whether teacher observations should be used — since they are necessarily used informally during teaching — but how teacher judgments can be strengthened and improved so that they can be used for formal purposes, especially for reporting and certification. A strong justification for using teacher observation in assessment is its capacity to enhance assessment validity. By extending the range of possible assessments, teacher observation allows assessment to be more: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ comprehensive — ensuring recognition of all desired learning outcomes, especially those not otherwise assessable than in classroom contexts; connected — situated within familiar learning contexts and closely related to curriculum frameworks, learning experiences and pedagogical planning; contextualised — sensitive to the effects of context on performance and deriving assessment evidence from a variety of situations and occasions; authentic — interesting, challenging, worthwhile and meaningful to students; holistic — emphasising relatedness and connections in learning and involving performance on complex wholes rather than separate components. All of these characteristics can be supported as important for high quality learning and assessment. Assessments with these characteristics have better representation of, clearer relevance to, and stronger consequences for desirable learning outcomes. Appropriate representation, relevance and consequences are often now recognised as the requirements of valid assessments. Past practice in assessment, particularly in secondary schools, has not accorded much recognition to teacher observation for formal purposes. Some people have argued that while teacher observation is necessarily a component of classroom teaching, a clear distinction should be made between informal and formal assessment. For example, some educators argue that assessment situations should not be confused with learning activities. 3 This draws too firm a distinction. Certainly, there should not be strong accountability for first attempts. Also, reports need to indicate the progress made by students at the time of reporting. However, a firm  distinction between assessment situations and learning activities stems from over3 This is argued by Caroline Gipps in her book, Beyond Testing: Towards a Theory of Educational Assessment, The Falmer Press, London, 1994. 3 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting concern for comparison and ranking. Where the aim is to map the student’s profile of demonstrated learning outcomes, standardised comparison is not the issue. The question is simply what justifiable evidence is there for concluding that the student has demonstrated a particular learning outcome. This does not require students to be ‘tested’ under controlled — and artificial — conditions. An alternative vision is one where assessment becomes incidental to and indistinguishable from learning activities. This allows for the strongest connection between pedagogy and assessment and, as already argued, a strengthening of the quality of the learning and the validity of the assessment. It can be argued that unless there is a strong connection between pedagogy and assessment, the assessment will be disembodied and discriminatory, that is, unconnected to any means for improving student learning and privileging students with existing cultural capital. Such an approach focuses on the student’s best performance over time and values the progress they are making (similar to ‘personal best’ in athletics). Howard Gardner puts it this way: ‘Rather than being imposed â€Å"externally† at odd times during the year, assessment ought to become part of the natural learning environment. As much as possible it should occur â€Å"on the fly†, as part of an individual’s natural engagement in a learning situation. Initially, the assessment would have to be introduced explicitly; but after a while, much assessment would occur naturally on the part of student and teacher, with little need for explicit recognition or labelling on anyone’s part. †¦ As assessment gradually becomes part of the landscape, it no longer needs to be set off from the rest of classroom activity. As in a good apprenticeship, the teachers and the students are always assessing. There is also no need to â€Å"teach for the assessment† because the assessment is ubiquitous; indeed, the need for formal tests might atrophy altogether. ’ 4 4 ‘Assessment in context: The alternative to standardized testing’, in B. R. Gifford M. C. O’Connor (Eds), Changing assessments: Alternative views of aptitude, achievement and instruction (pp. 78119), London, Kluwer, 1992. 4 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment COLLECTION AND RECORDING OF EVIDENCE All assessment requires the collection and recording of evidence of student learning. For the implementation of Council syllabuses, it has been recommended that the evidence focus on the demonstration of learning outcomes. Evidence is documentation that records, illustrates or confirms student demonstrations of learning outcomes. Collection and recording of evidence is necessary for two reasons: accountability — justification of the assessment judgments; and verification — confirmation of the assessment judgments. Accountability and verification are key factors in assuring the quality of assessments. †¢ †¢ Accountability (justification) means being able to explain and defend assessment judgments to students, their parent(s) and other teachers. Verification (confirmation) means being able to revisit the foundations for assessment judgments — being able to check their completeness, relevance and veracity. Teacher observations are primarily directed at the observation of events, performances and activities. In some cases, an artefact may be produced as a consequence of the event, performance or activity. In other cases, no artefact is produced and the event, performance or process iself is the sole focus of attention. An artefact is something constructed by the t student, for example, a worksheet, a piece of writing, a design, a painting, a composition, a webpage — in other words, a product of some kind. Teacher observation is not primarily concerned with the artefact itself but with the way in which the artefact was produced, that is, with the process. 5 Evidence of process, whether or not there is a resultant artefact, may involve either direct record or written record. These two types of record have different characteristics. A direct record keeps a ‘trace’ of the event through an audio-recording, a video-recording or a sequence of photographs. The activity or event might be, for example, a speech, a dramatic presentation, a group activity or a practical task. The term ‘trace’ emphasises that the record is not the same as the event itself. At best, it allows some features of the event to be represented and recalled. Some features of the event may be lost, such as the ‘feel’ of the occasion or the ‘spark’ between presenter and audience. Some features of the event may be filtered or distorted by the medium of recording, for example, through positioning and handling of the 5 In some cases, a sequence of artefacts may be produced and these may provide a progressive record of stages of production. These could involve, for example, a sequence of written drafts, initial designs, trial compositions, or tentative frameworks. In this case, the artefacts indicate milestones of development towards the final product. It is important to keep the total sequence of artefacts, together with annotations about contextual factors, such as the way in which the student has made use of comments and suggestions, so that a complete interpretation of what the student has done can be made. 5 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting recording device. It is important, therefore, to realise that such a record offers only partial representation of the event. Nevertheless, such ‘traces’ are better than having no record at all. A written record can take the form of an observation sheet or a logbook (diary of events). Observation sheets can be more or less structured: at one extreme they contain checklists of learning outcomes; at the other extreme they contain broad categories for writing on-the-spot comments or annotations; and in between these extremes is a combination of them both. 6 A logbook provides a record of critical incidents or key comments (sometimes referred to as an anecdotal record); for accuracy of recall, entries need to be made as soon after the event as possible. The student’s name and the date also need to be clearly recorded. A sequential collection of such records is sometimes called a ‘running record’. When keeping an observation sheet or a logbook, written entries can be (relatively) high inference or (relatively) low inference. ‘High inference’ means that a judgment or interpretation is made, whereas ‘low inference’ means that the specifics of the event are described (without any attempt to interpret what they signify). Thus, using a checklist of core learning outcomes would involve high inference, whereas providing a descriptive account of student performance without direct reference to core learning outcomes could involve low inference. In the latter case, judgments relating to the demonstration of learning outcomes can be delayed until a variety of evidence has been collected. The advantage of low inference observations is that they are more ‘objective’ or ‘transparent’ and can provide a ‘closer-to-the-event’ basis for later verification; the specifics of the event are more easily accessible. The advantage of high inference observations is greater ease and efficiency in record keeping, but the specifics of the event are not then retrievable from the record. It is possible to record both a judgment (high inference) and a description (low inference), thus retaining some of the benefits of each. Descriptive accounts can include written commentary on student performance under specific headings on an observation sheet; critical incidents or significant events recorded in a logbook; and key performance features recorded in a logbook. Critical incidents and significant events are particularly noteworthy instances of the demonstration of particular learning outcomes (or the lack of it), especially those observed for the first time or demonstrated in a particularly dramatic or unexpected way. Key performance features are salient features of an observed performance whether or not they are particularly ‘critical’, including evidence that strengthens or confirms early judgments relating to student demonstrations of learning outcomes. When an artefact, direct record or descriptive account is kept and placed in the student’s assessment portfolio, the artefact, direct record or descriptive account can be referred to again at a later time in order to retrieve the specifics of student performance. This allows assessment judgments to be delayed until a convenient time or allows assessment judgments to be 6. Rating scales are not mentioned here since arbitrary distinctions of quality are not part of the assessment position espoused by the Council. However, the sequences of core learning outcomes (arranged in levels along a developmental continuum) provide quasi-rating scales. It is a matter of convenience and style whether a sequence of core learning outcomes is characterised as a quasi-rating scale (showing where the student is positioned along the developmental continuum) or simply an expanded checklist (showing which core learning outcomes the student has demonstrated). 6 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment verified on a subsequent occasion, for example, for purposes of moderation. It is difficult to verify written records of judgments without an accompanying artefact, direct record or descriptive account as a reference point. 7 Table 2: Summary of types of teacher observation evidence Focus on product — keep artefact(s) Focus on activity — record process †¢ Direct record (‘trace’) o Audio-tape o Video-tape o Photographs Written record o Observation sheet  § Checklist (high inference)  § Description (low inference) o Logbook  § Description of critical incidents  § Description of key performance features †¢ PLANNING FOR TEACHER OBSERVATION Teacher observations cannot be useful without planning. Different types of evidence require different types of planning. An essential requirement for  all types of evidence is anticipating the kinds of learning outcomes that may be demonstrated. This is particularly important where observation is incidental and where judgments (rather than descriptions) are recorded. Council syllabuses provide a framework of learning outcomes that serve as the perceptual reference points for recognising the characteristics of student performance. The framework of learning outcomes makes available to the teacher concepts and language for recognising and describing what a student knows and can do. Learning the structure, language and concepts of the framework therefore is a key aspect of planning for teacher observation, as it is too for teaching. Incidental observation necessarily involves little additional planning, apart from the normal planning of classroom learning activities for students. Incidental observation is opportunistic, 7 Where there is no supporting evidential record for the judgment, verification of the judgment is strictly impossible. The record of judgment needs to be considered in the context of other evidence collected from different times and events. Where it corroborates other evidence, the judgment is strengthened. Where it contradicts other evidence, more evidence may be needed. Ultimately, the weight of evidence is what matters. ‘Other evidence’ could include the judgments of other observers, that is, other records of judgment of the same event. 7 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting  capitalising on revelations of student learning during regular classroom learning activities. In this sense it cannot be planned. It is essentially unanticipated. It can only be recorded through descriptions in a logbook. Although there may sometimes be an artefact to provide corroboration for the teacher’s observation, any process details depend on teacher description. Incidental observation is therefore the weakest form of teacher observation and would preferably be used only as supplementary evidence to support other forms o evidence. f Relying on incidental observation alone would be unsatisfactory (see caveats below). Planned observation can involve planning  for ‘in situ’ observation (in learning situations) or planning for set assessment tasks. There is little to distinguish these two situations in practical terms. However, as assessment becomes more important, particularly in Years 8 to 10, students may need to know when they are being assessed, since they may otherwise choose not to show their actual capabilities. Absence of demonstration of learning outcomes might not indicate incapability of demonstrating those learning outcomes but lack of appropriate challenge or opportunity. Formal assessment occasions would appear to become more important in the secondary school than in the primary school, at least for the present. 8 For all planned observations, whether ‘in situ’ or set tasks, thought needs to be given to how the event and/or the observations will be recorded. Consideration needs to be given to whether a direct record will be kept and what form of observation record will be made. The validity of teacher observations is strengthened by preparing an observation sheet that allows systematic recording of observations and judgments. An observation sheet may include checklists of learning outcomes and/or categories for describing student activities and performances. Learning outcomes might be made more explicit by listing their elaborations, components or criteria, that is, by providing more detail on the characteristics of the desired learning outcome. The advantages of prepared observation sheets include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ opportunity to share learning expectations with students in advance encouragement of student self-monitoring and self-assessment clarification of the desired learning outcomes to guide learning focus on the desired learning outcomes to guide teaching cuing of attention to the full range of relevant learning outcomes having available an explicit and standard recording format ease of recording of student performance characteristics structured means of providing feedback to students. 8 In the long term, taking up Howard Gardner’s vision (see footnote 4), a more natural approach to assessment would require that classrooms become more like normal work environments. This does not necessarily mean that the student (as the worker) is under constant surveillance but that there are  opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities in situations that really matter (but are preferably ‘authentic’ rather than ‘artificial’). The necessary shift in assessment practice to support this is from ‘one-off testing’ to progressive demonstration of ‘best (sustained) performance’. Reformed assessment practice would place more onus on the student to demonstrate the desired learning outcomes (and to indicate when they think they are doing so) together with specific ‘invitations’ to students to demonstrate their level of development in relation to sequences of learning outcomes of increasing complexity. 8 Teacher Observation in Student Assessment  Disadvantages of prepared observation sheets include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the need to allow for several levels of learning outcomes on a single sheet it can be difficult to anticipate all the learning outcomes that might appear it is possible that other serendipitous learning outcomes will be missed students’ learning may be constrained by listed learning outcomes. The disadvantages are outweighed by the advantages. They can be overcome, in any case, by careful design of the observation sheet, tailoring it to the current stage of student development, and allowing space for additional observations to be recorded. Observation sheets should be used as a tentative organising structure for recording teacher observations rather than a limiting framework for the actual observations. Space also needs to be provided on the observation sheet for including descriptive details of the context. These details need to include any characteristics of the setting or the occasion that could have influenced the student’s performance, either positively or negatively, and that might be relevant in making a judgment about whether the student has demonstrated particular learning outcomes. The details can be physical (e. g. , uncomfortable surroundings), psychological (e. g. , personal attributes in stressful situations) or social (e. g. , other events in the life of the school or the student). Through all of this, it must be remembered that any written record  of observations is necessarily selective. Only certain features of student performance are likely to be noticed and can be recorded. Therefore, having a clear understanding and ready access to the framework of expected learning outcomes is essential. One technique for reducing the cognitive demands of open observation is ‘spotlighting’. This means targeting specific learning outcomes (across several levels of a strand) on particular occasions. This has the added advantage of ensuring systematic coverage of all relevant learning outcomes. However, it should not be pursued so religiously that evidence of other learning outcomes outside the spotlighting target is ignored. 9 FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY OF TEACHER OBSERVATIONS AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT THEM Teacher observations will be valid to the extent that the evidence is appropriately recorded and interpreted, that is, whether: †¢ †¢ the recorded evidence accurately represents the observed student performance the interpretation (judgment) of this evidence is justifiable. Accurate recording requires transparent and unbiased perception of the student’s performance. Justifiable interpretation requires careful consideration of what the student’s performance signifies, in terms of learning outcomes, taking into consideration any factors 9 Margaret Forster and Geoff Masters discuss ‘spotlighting’ in Performances: Assessment resource kit, Camberwell, Victoria, Australian Council for Educational Research, 1996. 9 Discussion Paper on Assessment and Reporting that may have influenced the performance. The use of the term ‘justifiable’ here emphasises that there may not be a single unequivocal interpretation of the evidence but rather that the interpretation should withstand challenge as being reasonable and defensible. There also may be a requirement that the interpretation be consistent with the interpretations of other teachers. 10 The following discussion covers some factors that can affect the accuracy of the recorded evidence or the justifiability of the interpretation or both.

Efficiency and Web Page Design :: Internet Cyberspace Essays

Efficiency and Web Page Design One of the biggest challenges for web designers today is trying to have a ‘killer app’, yet make it efficient enough for the common surfer. We’re talking about file size. Zona Research (June 1999) reported that 70% of online users were only connected at 56K or less. Granted this number may have decreased a bit in the last 16 months, but the fact is, most people have a slow connection. As a surfer browses through the numerous sites on the web, they want to see the information the site has to offer. Some studies indicate that if you page takes longer than eight seconds for something to start appearing, you will probably lose your visitors. You need to be able to deliver your pages and information in a neat yet efficient manner. There are several factors that cause your visitors to have slow downloads. One might be the network or connection speed they have. They may also have poor performing hardware. Not much you can do about these. Maybe it is your server, it could be upgraded; but more than likely it has to do with your files. The size of the files can be caused by large images, or it may just have inefficient code. In order to decrease the download time we will first look at the code and find ways to make the files more ‘lean’; we want to ‘trim the fat’ and get them in the best condition possible. Next we will look at graphics and ways we can optimize them for maximum performance and minimal download time. Finally there are numerous other hints and tricks that can be added to your code to make them download in record times. Making ‘mean’ and ‘lean’ code Every character and space that appears in your code takes up file size The following suggestions can help you to trim up your files and cut second off your site downloads. Make your file names and directory names simple and short. This may sound trivial, but every little bit counts. For example: or Use relative addressing instead of absolute addressing.

Compare And Contrast Sociology Essay Essay

Sociology is based on two frameworks, namely structure-agency and conflict-consensus. These frameworks center around three founders of sociology, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. This essay will attempt to demonstrate which author explains sociology within which framework. The structure used for this essay will be a point-by-point structure. This essay will start off with structure, move on to agency and then to conflict and lastly conclude with consensus. Structure is the social patterns, which influence and may restrict the choices and opportunities of the individual. Durkheim is a structuralist and explains structure through social facts. Social facts are the structures, values and norms, which surpass the individual and may lead to social constraint. Durkheim believes that structure together with hierarchy is the most important aspect of maintaining a civilized society. Similarly, Marx is also a structuralist. However, he explains structure through dialectical materialism. Through this, he believes that history is not driven by ideas but rather by economic and class interests. Thus, structure is based on what the interests of the most influential class (in an economic context) are. In contrast, Weber is not a structuralist and focuses on agency more than structure (this will be explained further later on). However he does explain structure through bureaucracy and a rational-legal model. He defines bureaucracy as routine tasks that become jurisdictional areas and are ordered by rules and regulations. Thus, structure can only optimally function if bureaucracy follows the strict rules and regulations put in place without any corruption. On the other hand, agency is the ability of individuals to make their own decisions and act independently through free will. Durkheim does not believe that society is based on the individual but more on the social structures around the individual. He maintains that individuals will come and go from social institutions, but institutions have a life over and above the individual and therefore structure plays a more influential role than agency. Likewise, Marx also believes that structure is more important than agency but also emphasizes the fact that structure leads to the detriment of the majority of individuals. This means that the majority of individuals’ interests are not taken into consideration and are over powered by the role of structure. On the contrary, Weber starts his argument with agency and explains agency through â€Å"verstehen† and the theory of social action. Weber maintains that it is important to understand why the individual does a certain action (â€Å"verstehen†) and that there are three different types of social action that make up a civilized society: Traditional action (actions carried out due to tradition and because that’s they way things have always been done), affective action (actions carried out due to emotion to express personal feelings) and rational action (actions carried out using reason to achieve a certain goal). Weber also believes that legitimate authority is based on agency and the free choice of individuals. The conflict theory maintains that social, material and economic inequality are the forces of social change within a society. Durkheim is of the belief that conflict will not achieve social change, but rather consensus (will be explained further later on). He stresses the fact that conflict will only cause disorder and chaos within a society and a society will not be able to move forward if there is too much conflict. However, Marx emphasizes conflict over consensus and that inequality and class conflict furthers one side of society (the bourgeoisie) and not the other (the proletariat) due to the economic interest of the upper class. Weber is in the middle of Durkheim and Marx on both conflict and consensus. Weber is of the opinion that conflict is due to inequality within a society and the fact that there are certain people in power by force (are not chosen to be in power), which contributes even more to conflict. In contrast to conflict, consensus maintains that social and economic systems are fair and sustain social order in society. Durkheim believes that for there to be a normative basis for order within a society, there has to be moral and normative consensus. This means that everyone within a society needs to have the same values, and when everyone has the same values they become norms for a society to live and act by. Marx on the other hand, does not believe in consensus but rather in conflict. He focuses on the fact that a society can only progress if there is conflict, not shared values and norms. If there is no economic interest within a society or class, a society will remain stagnant and not move forward. As stated before, Weber stands in the middle of Durkheim and Marx on consensus and states that for there to be consensus within a society, legitimate authority needs to be achieved through the consent of the people in a society. This means that all people should decide together on who should be given authority to do what. However he also believes that for a society to progress forward, conflict and consensus need to occur simultaneously. In conclusion, the three different authors all have very different but equally important viewpoints on society. Durkheim emphasizes structure over agency and consensus over conflict. Marx also focuses on structure over agency but rather conflict over consensus. And Weber stresses agency over structure and that conflict and consensus are equally important. Therefore Durkheim, Marx and Weber have many differences and similarities within the structure-agency and conflict-consensus frameworks.